Psychiatric Disorders
本科心理学essay代写 Brain disorders are among the most complex disorders to treat and manage. One of the main challenges in the treatment is a clear diagnosis
Introduction
Psychiatric disorders are impairments of the psychological functioning of an individual, usually to severe levels that make life unbearable without assistance. Psychiatric disorders have clinical manifestations and symptoms that can be intervened through various psychiatric or clinical approaches including drug regimes. A wide spectrum of disorders affect the psychological wellbeing of the patients and specialized psychiatric attention may be needed in the diagnosis. Generally, the diagnosis procedure is aimed at determining the severity of the condition and finds out if there is a pathological manifestation for specialized psychiatric intervention. A very complex relationship of causation factors and manifestation of the various psychiatric disorders makes it difficult to diagnose and treat them, with a huge gap still existing on their development mechanisms. In this discourse, a number of psychiatric disorders are discussed with a presentation of views on theory and effective drug regimes also accompanying the presentation. 本科心理学essay代写
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介绍 本科心理学essay代写
精神障碍是个体心理功能的损害，通常严重到使生活在没有帮助的情况下无法忍受。精神障碍的临床表现和症状可以通过包括药物治疗在内的各种精神或临床方法进行干预。范围广泛的疾病会影响患者的心理健康，在诊断时可能需要专门的精神病学关注。一般来说，诊断程序的目的是确定病情的严重程度，并找出是否有专门的精神科干预的病理表现。各种精神疾病的致病因素与表现的关系非常复杂，诊断和治疗难度很大，其发展机制还存在巨大差距。在这篇演讲中，讨论了许多精神疾病，并在演讲中介绍了对理论和有效药物治疗方案的看法。
Schizophrenia
Schizophrenia(s) involves a spectrum of disorders characterized by disjointed psychic functioning earlier though to be constituted by the breakdown in the coordination of emotions, thinking and actions among the victims. Usually, extreme mental illnesses such as madness are linked with schizophrenia. A major observation in the spectrum of disorders referred to as schizophrenias is a changing pattern of manifestation as the victim progresses in age. The difficulty in devising appropriate interventions in this category of disorders is spelt by several overlapping symptoms that may also be experienced by victims of neurological disorders. Some of the key diagnosis symptoms for schizophrenia include; delusional thoughts, inappropriate affect, hallucinations, incoherent thinking, and odd behavior. Repetitive occurrence and manifestation of any tow of these symptoms is sufficient to suspect schizophrenia (Pinel, 2009). 本科心理学essay代写
Major theoretical explanations to the establishment of schizophrenia are developmental and dopamine theories. Developmental theories attach meaning to possibilities of faulty brain development at the fetal or infant stages that subsequently affect psychological development. Dopamine theory relies on the premise that high concentration of dopamine leads to schizophrenia.
Drugs of choice over the research period have included chlorpromazine and other phenothiazines (inactivation of dopamine receptors D1 and D2 and its activity but reduces severity in some schizophrenias but activates others), reserpine (abandoned because effective dosage generates severe drops in blood pressure). Haloperidol, spiroperidol and other butyrophenones act in a similar way as chlorpromazine but only on D2 receptors and have a higher receptor binding effectiveness than chlorpromazine. Both drugs cause Parkinson’s related symptoms.
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精神分裂症
精神分裂症涉及一系列以早期精神功能脱节为特征的疾病，但由受害者之间的情绪、思维和行动协调的崩溃构成。通常，疯狂等极端精神疾病与精神分裂症有关。在被称为精神分裂症的疾病谱中的一个主要观察结果是随着受害者年龄的增长表现形式的变化。在这类疾病中设计适当干预措施的困难是由几个重叠的症状拼写出来的，神经系统疾病的受害者也可能会经历这些症状。精神分裂症的一些关键诊断症状包括：妄想、不恰当的情感、幻觉、不连贯的思维和奇怪的行为。任何这些症状的重复出现和表现都足以怀疑精神分裂症（Pinel，2009）。
对精神分裂症形成的主要理论解释是发育理论和多巴胺理论。发育理论认为胎儿或婴儿阶段大脑发育有缺陷的可能性会影响心理发育。多巴胺理论依赖于高浓度多巴胺导致精神分裂症的前提。
研究期间选择的药物包括氯丙嗪和其他吩噻嗪（多巴胺受体 D1 和 D2 的失活及其活性，但降低了某些精神分裂症的严重程度，但会激活其他精神分裂症）、利血平（已放弃，因为有效剂量会导致血压严重下降）。氟哌啶醇、螺哌啶醇和其他丁酰苯的作用方式与氯丙嗪相似，但仅作用于 D2 受体，并且受体结合效力高于氯丙嗪。这两种药物都会引起帕金森相关症状。
Affective Disorders (Depression and Mania)
Depression
Depression is the deep psychological and emotional response to feelings of intense loss and grief such as during the loss of loved ones with the exception of people suffering from anhedonia, which does not involve grief, and loss. Anhedonia is clinical depression where individuals suffer from despair and loss of appetite for pleasure, usually affecting normal life processes. Depression therefore represents a class of disorders that severely alter normal psychotic emotional functions.
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情感障碍（抑郁症和躁狂症） 本科心理学essay代写
沮丧
抑郁症是对强烈的失落感和悲伤感的深层心理和情感反应，例如在失去亲人期间，但患有快感缺乏症的人除外，不涉及悲伤和失落感。 快感缺失症是一种临床抑郁症，患者会感到绝望和对快乐失去食欲，通常会影响正常的生活过程。 因此，抑郁症代表一类严重改变正常精神病情绪功能的障碍。
Mania
This condition is the perfect opposite of depression manifested by overconfidence and distractibility. Individuals suffering from mania possess high emotional energy and impulsivity. Mild mania symptoms may include excited talkativeness, high positivity and high levels of confidence. Extreme manifestation of mania is exhibited by excessive enthusiasm, distractibility and overconfidence that results in several unrecognizable mistakes. Some depression victims express both extremes of emotional dysfunction as depression and mania defines, which represents a psychiatric class of disorder referred to as bipolar affective disorder. Unipolar affective disorder does not manifest episodes of mania (Pinel, 2009). Reactive depression disorder is triggered by a specific cause whereas endogenous depression such as mania does not have a particular trigger.
Acceptable theoretical explanations include monoamine theory of depression and diathesis-stress model of depression. Monoamine theory of depression is based on dysfunctional serotonergic and adrenergic synaptic activity. Diathesis-stress model of depression relies on the premise that certain individuals inherit susceptibility to stressors, which activate the depressive tendencies early in life when the individuals are exposed to stressors. These individuals release more stress-hormone-releasing hormones. And stress hormones wile remaining unresponsive to negative inhibition of their release when administered with synthetic glucocorticoids. 本科心理学essay代写
Drugs of choice for management of depression include monoamine oxidase inhibitors such as iproniazid through inhibition of monoamine oxidase (cause cheese effect which increases blood pressure risking stroke), tricyclic antidepressants such as imipramine (inhibit reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine), lithium blocks mania (causes nausea, thirst, urinary discomfort, fatigue) and selective monoamine reuptake inhibitors such as fluoxetine branded as, Prozac, Paxil, Zoloft, Luvox and Remeron (block reuptake of sereotonin and have few side effects), valproate (causes liver problems and dizziness), carbamezapine (causes skin rash and nausea). Other drugs include Gabapentin, Topiramate and, Lamotrigine.
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狂躁
这种情况与过度自信和注意力不集中表现出的抑郁症完全相反。患有躁狂症的人具有很高的情绪能量和冲动性。轻度躁狂症状可能包括兴奋的健谈、高度的积极性和高度的自信。狂热的极端表现是过度的热情、注意力分散和过度自信，导致一些无法识别的错误。一些抑郁症受害者表现出抑郁症和躁狂症所定义的情绪功能障碍的两个极端，这代表了一种称为双相情感障碍的精神障碍。单相情感障碍不表现出躁狂发作（Pinel，2009）。反应性抑郁症是由特定原因触发的，而内源性抑郁症（如躁狂症）没有特定的触发因素。
可接受的理论解释包括抑郁症的单胺理论和抑郁症的素质-压力模型。抑郁症的单胺理论基于功能失调的血清素和肾上腺素能突触活动。抑郁症的素质-压力模型依赖于这样一个前提，即某些个体继承了对压力源的易感性，当个体暴露于压力源时，压力源会在生命早期激活抑郁倾向。当与合成糖皮质激素一起给药时，这些个体释放更多的应激激素释放激素和应激激素，而对其释放的负抑制无反应。
治疗抑郁症的首选药物包括单胺氧化酶抑制剂，如通过抑制单胺氧化酶的异烟肼（引起奶酪效应，增加中风风险的血压），三环类抗抑郁药，如丙咪嗪（抑制血清素和去甲肾上腺素的再摄取），锂阻断躁狂症（引起中风）恶心、口渴、排尿不适、疲劳）和选择性单胺再摄取抑制剂，如氟西汀，商标为 Prozac、Paxil、Zoloft、Luvox 和 Remeron（阻止血清素的再摄取，副作用很少），丙戊酸盐（引起肝脏问题和头晕），卡马氮平（引起皮疹和恶心）。其他药物包括加巴喷丁、托吡酯和拉莫三嗪。
Anxiety Disorder
Individuals suffering from chronic fear and worry without a specific threat and without a specified adaptive motivation are said to suffer from anxiety disorder. Symptoms of severe anxiety leading to stressing experiences include tachycardia, disruptive sleeping, dysfunctional breathing, vomiting, hypertension and high stress hormone levels. Apparently, there are various classes of anxiety disorders. Which include generalized anxiety disorders, phobic anxiety, panic disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder (Greist and Jefferson, 2007). Theoretical backgrounds of anxiety disorders explain that animals naturally respond to offensive stimuli through anxiety with a possibility of heightened elevation of sensitivity. 本科心理学essay代写
Common drugs in the management of anxiety disorders include benzodiazepines (also sleep inducing- cause sedation, lost motor coordination, vomiting, shaking, addiction, and rebound anxiety). Serotonin agonists also constitute anxiety disorder treatment regime (mechanism is not clear, but causes vomiting, lack of sleep, headaches and dizziness). Antidepressants are effective due to the comorbidity with depression.
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焦虑症 本科心理学essay代写
没有特定威胁和特定适应性动机的长期恐惧和担忧的个体被称为患有焦虑症。导致压力体验的严重焦虑症状包括心动过速、睡眠障碍、呼吸功能障碍、呕吐、高血压和高应激激素水平。显然，焦虑症有多种类别，包括广泛性焦虑症、恐惧症、恐慌症、强迫症和创伤后应激障碍（Greist 和 Jefferson，2007）。焦虑症的理论背景解释说，动物通过焦虑自然地对攻击性刺激做出反应，并有可能提高敏感性。
治疗焦虑症的常用药物包括苯二氮卓类药物（也是睡眠诱导镇静、运动协调性丧失、呕吐、颤抖、成瘾和反跳焦虑）。血清素激动剂也构成焦虑症的治疗方案（机制尚不清楚，但会引起呕吐、睡眠不足、头痛和头晕）。由于与抑郁症共病，抗抑郁药是有效的。
Tourette Syndrome
Perhaps the only psychiatric disorder with a specific diagnosis without complex overlapping symptoms as observed in other disorders. Tourette syndrome is manifested through tics (unintentional, stereotyped actions or talking). This disorder commences in childhood or adolescence but subsides as the victims progresses in age. In a few cases, the occurrence of the tics continues into adulthood and fail to respond to drug, with only promising intervention being deep brain stimulation.
Major symptoms include simple motions such blinking or head motion gaining vocalization complications as age progresses. Motor tics may include gesticulations, jumping and squatting. Major vocalizations may include coughing and barking which may graduate to coprolalia, echolalia and palilalia. The occurrence of the tics is seemingly affected by certain factors such as stress, despite the general involuntary nature of occurrence. Alternatively, the tics may be suppressed for long spells of time before occurrence, a time during which high concentration levels are realized. 本科心理学essay代写
There is scanty information on theoretical perspective of the disorder. Only a hypothetical premise has been made to the effect that it manifests in cases of abnormal basal-ganglia-thalamus-cortex feedback circuit. However, treatment has been designed for the condition with neroleptics (D2 monoamine receptor inhibition agents) showing favorable results in reduction of tics. Drugs of choice are also determined by the hypothetical position of impact of dopaminergic activity. Anxiety and depression variable are highly important in explaining the mechanism of the appropriate drug regimen for the treatment of Tourette syndrome. Management of the syndrome through appropriate care can be facilitated by counseling and training of family members to avoid depression. Which causes devastating results in the victims (Clare, Jones and Wadland, 2000).
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图雷特综合症 本科心理学essay代写
也许是唯一一种具有特定诊断的精神疾病，而没有在其他疾病中观察到的复杂重叠症状。 Tourette 综合征通过抽动（无意的、刻板的动作或说话）表现出来。这种疾病始于儿童期或青春期，但随着受害者年龄的增长而消退。在少数情况下，抽动的发生持续到成年期并且对药物没有反应，唯一有希望的干预是深部脑刺激。
主要症状包括简单的动作，如眨眼或头部动作，随着年龄的增长而出现发声并发症。运动性抽动可能包括手势、跳跃和蹲下。主要的发声可能包括咳嗽和吠叫，这可能会演变为 coprolalia、echolalia 和 palilalia。抽动的发生似乎受某些因素（如压力）的影响，尽管发生的一般是非自愿性质的。或者，抽动可以在发生前很长一段时间被抑制，在这段时间内实现高浓度水平。
关于该障碍的理论观点的信息很少。仅对它在异常基底神经节-丘脑-皮层反馈电路的情况下表现出的效果做出了假设前提。然而，针对这种病症设计的治疗方法是使用安眠药（D2 单胺受体抑制剂），显示出在减少抽动方面的有利结果。选择的药物也取决于多巴胺能活性影响的假设位置。焦虑和抑郁变量对于解释适当药物治疗图雷特综合征的机制非常重要。通过对家庭成员进行咨询和培训以避免抑郁症，可以通过适当的护理来促进对综合症的管理，抑郁症会给受害者带来毁灭性的后果（克莱尔，琼斯和瓦德兰，2000）。
Conclusion
Brain disorders are among the most complex disorders to treat and manage. One of the main challenges in the treatment is a clear diagnosis for the actual disorder, bearing in mind that there is a high overlapping manifestation for brain disorders as well as comorbidity. Alternatively, it is difficult to treat the disorders due to the varied response to drugs, where one drug is reported to reduce a symptom while elevating another. Psychiatric disorders present a challenging psychiatric area of interest and immense research input is required for satisfactory management and treatment.
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结论 本科心理学essay代写
脑部疾病是治疗和管理最复杂的疾病之一。 治疗中的主要挑战之一是对实际疾病的明确诊断，要记住脑部疾病和合并症存在高度重叠的表现。 或者，由于对药物的反应不同，因此很难治疗这些疾病，据报道，一种药物可以减轻症状，同时会提高另一种症状。 精神疾病是一个具有挑战性的精神病学领域，需要大量的研究投入才能获得满意的管理和治疗。
References 本科心理学essay代写
Clare, L., Jones, E., & Wadland, L. (2000). “Triage: A Waiting List Initiative in a Child Mental Health Service,” Psychiatric Bulletin, 24(1):57-59
Greist, J. H., & Jefferson, J. W. (2007). “Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder,” Retrieved from: http://focushw.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/abstract/5/3/283
Pinel, P. J. (2009). Biopsychology, (7th Edn.), Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc
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